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In addition, we are also gaining a better understanding of the limitations and key issues in their implementation, such as nonadoption and abandonment. With the mass uptake in smartphones, the subsequent rapid developments in mobile health, and the explosion in health apps, we are now exploring the value of low-cost, patient-centered interventions delivered directly to consumers.

As Web2.0 developments took hold and the public became producers as well as consumers of health information, researchers began to identify the benefits of online peer-to-peer communication and the sharing of information in virtual communities, social media, and increasingly on health ratings sites. From a sociotechnical perspective, there were initial preoccupations with the impact of a new, uncontrolled form of mass communication, alongside concerns with the quality of unregulated online information and threats to professions, with medical professionals in particular fearing a loss of authority. Over the last two decades, the concerns of digital health researchers interested in the social impact of the internet have evolved as the technology has matured and new tools have emerged. In health care, artificial intelligence needs to pass the implementation game, not the imitation game. Artificial intelligence therefore needs to supplement rather than replace medical professionals, and identifying the complementary positioning of artificial intelligence in medical consultation is a key challenge for the future.

Arguably, medicine requires wisdom more than intelligence, artificial or otherwise. In this paper I argue that many medical decisions require value judgements and the doctor-patient relationship requires empathy and understanding to arrive at a shared decision, often handling large areas of uncertainty and balancing competing risks.

A useful thought experiment is the application of the Turing test to user-facing artificial intelligence systems in health care (such as chatbots or conversational agents). Nuffield Department of Primary Care Health SciencesĮmail: the next decade, one issue which will dominate sociotechnical studies in health informatics is the extent to which the promise of artificial intelligence in health care will be realized, along with the social and ethical issues which accompany it.